[178] Other Parthian sources used for reconstructing chronology include cuneiform astronomical tablets and colophons discovered in Babylonia. Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain. As the region inhabited by Parthians, Parthia first appears as a political entity in Achaemenid lists of governorates ("satrapies") under their dominion. Reign of Arrows - Paperback - Oxford University Press [133] However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it as well continued through the Georgian kings with the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania. Parthia - Wikipedia Tracking the Tribes Through Migrations and Maps V. Sarkhosh Curtis et. [278] Although literature of the Parthian language was not committed to written form, there is evidence that the Arsacids acknowledged and respected written Greek literature. Yet, nowadays, little is known about Parthia, a major power that rivaled Rome for 400 years. 106148. [282], It is assumed that royal Parthian women could own and manage their own property, land and manufactures, as could their predecessors in the Achaemenid and Seleucid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire. [42] They most likely operated a mint at Mithridatkert/Nisa as well. Upon assuming the throne, Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers. Lukonin. [253] The common motif of the Sasanian period showing two horsemen engaged in combat with lances first appeared in the Parthian reliefs at Mount Behistun. 2016. [78] Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him, but Pompey refused. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital Taxila, his caravan leader read Vardanes' official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality. [255], In portraiture the Parthians favored and emphasized frontality, meaning the person depicted by painting, sculpture, or raised-relief on coins faced the viewer directly instead of showing his or her profile. [125] However, Chinese records maintain that a Roman embassy, perhaps only a group of Roman merchants, arrived at the Han capital Luoyang by way of Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) in 166AD, during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161180AD) and Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146168AD). [253] Although the iwan was known during the Achaemenid period and earlier in smaller and subterranean structures, it was the Parthians who first built them on a monumental scale. However, he was killed when one of his junior officers, suspecting a trap, attempted to stop him from riding into Surena's camp. I. [252] Geometric and stylized plant patterns were also used on stucco and plaster walls. While the Seleucids were weakened by internal war and conflict with the Ptolemies in the west, Arsaces, Parthia's . [66] Caravans traveling through the Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes Roman luxury glasswares to China. The Parthian Empire: The History and Culture of One of Ancient Rome's Most Famous Enemies: Charles River Editors: 9781514862285: Amazon.com: Books Books History Ancient Civilizations Buy new: $6.99 Get Fast, Free Shipping with Amazon Prime FREE Returns FREE delivery Monday, December 19 if you spend $25 on items shipped by Amazon Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III, the latter succeeded by Vologases IV of Parthia (r. c.147191AD) who ushered in a period of peace and stability. [59], The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC. The latter was granted the title of king (Greek: basileus) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior. [138], A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued, with only the invasion of Alans into Parthia's eastern territories around 72AD mentioned by Roman historians. This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33BC; they escaped a Parthian invasion while Antony's rival Octavian attacked his forces to the west. The Parthian Empire was a powerful ancient empire, located in southwestern Asia, where modern day Iran is now. 2.3 Later Period. [281] Whether the royal women lived in seclusion from men is unknown, as no evidence of that has been found, but it is known that women at least participated in the royal banquets as entertainers, as women are shown in archeological images entertaining at such occasions with music and dance. [20] However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe. Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots mod | TBD. In return, the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war. [246] The followers of Zoroaster would have found the bloody sacrifices of some Parthian-era Iranian cults to be unacceptable. Dahae - Imperator Wiki - Paradox Wikis [198] The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints. After the Parni nomads had settled in Parthia and had built a small independent kingdom, they rose to power under king Mithradates the Great (r.171-138). [4] The native Parthian language, Middle Persian, and Akkadian were also used. With Parthian art, on the contrary, frontality becomes the normal treatment of the figure. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower. [264] The earliest Parthian iwans are found at Seleucia, built in the early 1st century AD. [268] The aristocratic elite of Hatra adopted the bobbed hairstyles, headdresses, and belted tunics worn by the nobility belonging to the central Arsacid court. From 740 to about 720 B.C., the empire of ancient Assyria located in what is now Iraq and Iran conquered and deported all 10 of the northern tribes of Israel. Manage all your favorite fandoms in one place! Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria, but refused the other demands. The Persian Empire is the name given to a series of dynasties centered in modern-day Iran that spanned several centuriesfrom the sixth century B.C. He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus' daughters, butbecause the marriage was not allowedmade war on Parthia and conquered Arbil east of the Tigris river. [162] When Roman emperor Septimius Severus (r.193211AD) invaded Mesopotamia in 197AD during the reign of Vologases V of Parthia (r. c.191208AD), the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127BC and occupied Seleucia. [143] The primary motivations for war were the advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor, as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of Rome's client states. Parthian Empire - Wikipedia Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the kings of Armenia as their subordinate clients. [167] He confronted Artabanus IV at the Battle of Hormozdgn on 28 April 224AD, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. Bivar insists that 138BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. [202], The King of Kings headed the Parthian government. The Parthian Empire is a considered formable for Iran encompassing the Middle East and Central Asia It requires Iraq, Kuwait, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Bahrain, Afghanistan, and Pakistan to be invaded. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals. The Parthian Empire - ThoughtCo The producer of the play decided to use Crassus' actual severed head in place of the stage-prop head of Pentheus. Compared to the Roman Empire, there are few titles on Rome's greatest rival in the ancient world. [21] Homa Katouzian[22] and Gene Ralph Garthwaite[23] claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis[21] and Maria Brosius[24] state that Andragoras was not overthrown by the Arsacids until 238BC. Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to the throne proved more dangerous to the Empire's stability than foreign invasion, and Parthian power evaporated when Ardashir I, ruler of Istakhr in Persis, revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, Artabanus IV, in 224AD. They marched the beaten captives into exile from Israel's northern and eastern borders. We must return to our roots to revive the empire lost to time and restore it to its greatest heights in Antiquity!". Fire Cult and Kingly Glory", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parthian_Empire&oldid=1162645408, Various articles from Iran Chamber Society (, This page was last edited on 30 June 2023, at 10:41. Parthian Empire image - Age of Empires mod for Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots - Mod DB Parthian Empire was a major Iranian political and cultural power lasting from 247 BCE to 224 ADE. The latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid, and then the Seleucid empires. The best books on the Parthian Empire from a history lover - Shepherd "[234] In line with Achaemenid traditions, rock-relief images of Arsacid rulers were carved at Mount Behistun, where Darius I of Persia (r. 522486 BC) made royal inscriptions. [262] However, the artwork of Nisa, including marble statues and the carved scenes on ivory rhyton vessels, is unquestionably influenced by Greek art. Background Around the end of the third century BC a nomadic people of central Asia, the Parni, moved south, skirting the shores of the Caspian Sea. During his campaign, Trajan was granted the title Parthicus by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia. There Mithridates treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius. [41] It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids, according to Brosius. [86] The horse archers employed the "Parthian shot" tactic: feigning retreat to draw enemy out, then turning and shooting at them when exposed. [158] Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him, yet the Romans made him king of Osroene. [71], Following the rule of Mithridates II, his son Gotarzes I succeeded him. [64] Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 AD Pacorus II of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han (r.7588AD). They control the Silk Road trade, became a center of trade and commerce. The end date marks the start of the Sassanid Empire. Limage des Parthes dans le monde grco-romain. Rise of the Sasanian Empire: The Persians (205-310 CE) - TheCollector A.D.H. The Romans captured the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon on multiple occasions during these conflicts, but were never able to hold on to them. [67] The merchants of Sogdia, speaking an Eastern Iranian language, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between Parthia and Han China. [63] Pearls were also a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits. While known for their military prowess as archers on horseback and creating a sophisticated horse culture, the Parthians were also skilled diplomats. [55], Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene, then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu. [219] Similarly, the Parthians appeared to have used war elephants infrequently. [71] When one of the last Seleucid monarchs, Demetrius III Eucaerus, attempted to besiege Beroea (modern Aleppo), Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated. Achaemenid Empire - World History Encyclopedia [87], With some 20,000 Romans dead, approximately 10,000 captured, and roughly another 10,000 escaping west, Crassus fled into the Armenian countryside. [280] Only two women are known to have ruled the Parthian Empire, one as monarch and one as regent. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. [212] There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king, comprising nobles, serfs and mercenaries, but this royal retinue was small. [81] Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54BC. [239] Aside from a minority of Jews[240] and early Christians,[241] most Parthians were polytheistic. Persians/History | Rise of Nations Wiki | Fandom From its origins as a minor nomadic tribe to its status as a major world empire, the rise of the Parthian state in the ancient world is nothing short of remarkable. Use features like bookmarks, note taking and highlighting while reading The Parthian Empire: The History and Culture of One of Ancient Rome's Most Famous Enemies. [92] Crown prince Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC, but were repulsed by Gaius Cassius Longinus, who ambushed and killed Osaces. For both in Oriental art and in Greek art, frontality was an exceptional treatment: in Oriental art it was a treatment strictly reserved for a small number of traditional characters of cult and myth; in Greek art it was an option resorted to only for definite reasons, when demanded by the subject, and, on the whole, seldom made use of. Native Parthian sources, written in Parthian, Greek and other languages, are scarce when compared to Sasanian and even earlier Achaemenid sources. [34] Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor Mithridates I (r. c.171132 BC),[27] whom Katouzian compares to Cyrus the Great (d. 530 BC), founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history." [265] The largest Parthian iwans at that site have a span of 15m (50ft). The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire By Uwe Ellerbrock Why this book? [136] However, Corbulo's successor Lucius Caesennius Paetus was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia. Specific government offices of Preferred Friend, Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that "while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office, the king could intervene on behalf of an individual, review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate. Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his regnal years" to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased. This is exemplified by the early 3rd-century AD wall murals of the Dura-Europos synagogue, a temple in the same city dedicated to Palmyrene gods, and the local Mithraeum. [269] The Parthian trouser-suit was also adopted in Palmyra, Syria, along with the use of Parthian frontality in art. Both the Sasanian and the Roman empires ended by adopting . [161] Although they withdrew, from this point forward the city of Dura-Europos remained in Roman hands. [253] The third phase occurred gradually after the Parthian conquest of Mesopotamia. [95], Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive. The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu. [214], The main striking force of the Parthian army was its cataphracts, heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in mailed armor. [61] After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I (r. c.4047AD) in 42AD, Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. The Parthians destroyed the army of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and in 4039 BC, Parthian forces captured the whole of the Levant except Tyre from the Romans. [203] Like the Ptolemies of Egypt, there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half-sisters; Queen Musa is said by Josephus to have married her own son, though this would be an extreme and isolated case. [50] Mithridates was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. [109] Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. [115], During the reign of Artabanus II, two Jewish commoners and brothers, Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea (near modern Fallujah, Iraq),[116] led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. [96], After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant. Native Parthian sources, written in Parthian, Greek and other languages, are scarce when compared to Sasanian and even earlier Achaemenid sources. Updated on August 23, 2018 Traditionally, the Parthian Empire (Arsacid Empire) lasted from 247 B.C. [60] Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals. [233], On his coins, Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps. [196] An indigenous historical source reveals that territories overseen by the central government were organized in a similar manner to the Seleucid Empire. [65] Besides silk, Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included iron from India, spices, and fine leather. [58] His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97BC, taking his son Tigranes hostage, who would later become Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia (r. c.9555BC). [134], When Vardanes II of Parthia rebelled against his father Vologases I in 55AD, Vologases withdrew his forces from Armenia. This mod replaces some old nations of game with some nations in 3rd century BCE. [69] A year following Mithridates II's subjugation of Armenia, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Roman proconsul of Cilicia, convened with the Parthian diplomat Orobazus at the Euphrates river. Various Roman emperors or their appointed generals invaded Mesopotamia in the course of the ensuing RomanParthian Wars of the next few centuries. Origins and establishment The silver drachma of Arsaces I ( r. c. 247-211 BC) with the Greek language inscription "of Arsaces" Before Arsaces I founded the Arsacid Dynasty, he was chieftain of the Parni, an ancient Central Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae. [229] The discontinuation of this phrase signified the revival of Iranian culture in Parthia. [16] The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language, in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia. The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west and the Scythians in the north. After the Parni nomads had settled in Parthia and had built a small independent kingdom, they rose to power under king Mithradates the Great (171-138 BCE). 36-41", https://iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i, "The Sacral Kingship of the early Arsacids. The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome, although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome. "[209] Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sassanian period, only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents: the House of Suren and the House of Karen. [156] However, only the 4th-century AD historians Eutropius and Festus allege that he attempted to establish a Roman province in lower Mesopotamia. [180] Along with parchment documents found at sites like Dura-Europos, these also provide valuable information on Parthian governmental administration, covering issues such as taxation, military titles, and provincial organization. [277] It is believed that such stories as the romantic tale Vis and Rmin and epic cycle of the Kayanian dynasty were part of the corpus of oral literature from Parthian times, although compiled much later. [227] Conscious of both the Hellenistic and Persian cultural roots of their kingship, the Arsacid rulers styled themselves after the Persian King of Kings and affirmed that they were also philhellenes ("friends of the Greeks"). Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his regnal years" to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased. [251], Parthian art can be divided into three geo-historical phases: the art of Parthia proper; the art of the Iranian plateau; and the art of Parthian Mesopotamia. Indeed, shortly afterward, Ardashir I, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern Fars Province, Iran) from Istakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule. The starting date is the time of which the Parthians occupied the satrapy of the Seleucid Empire known as Parthia (modern Turkmenistan). Amazon.com: The Parthian Empire: The History and Culture of One of The Roman emperor Tiberius (r.1437AD) became involved in a plot by Pharasmanes I of Iberia to place his brother Mithridates on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia. [210] The historian Plutarch noted that members of the Suren family, the first among the nobility, were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations. [header_ads] The Parthian Empire Origins Alexander the Great 's conquest of the vast Persian empire was followed, on his premature death in 321 BCE, by struggles between his generals which, after some years, resulted in one of them, Seleucus, acquiring most of Alexander's Asiatic domains. History of Iran: Parthian Empire - Iran Chamber [222] The largest army raised by the Parthians appears to have been 50,000. Parthian Empire Map - Bible Study BC), killing the latter. Publius Ventidius Bassus, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates (in modern Mersin Province, Turkey) in 39 BC. [68], The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border. Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain. [243] Aside from the main gods and goddesses, each ethnic group and city had their own designated deities. [122] After Artabanus' death in 38AD, a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor Vardanes I and his brother Gotarzes II. The light cavalry is thought to have carried a sword into battle as well, while cataphracts likely were also armed with short swords or knives. [83] As his army marched to Carrhae (modern Harran, southeastern Turkey), Orodes II invaded Armenia, cutting off support from Rome's ally Artavasdes II of Armenia (r.5334BC). However, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia, and eventually the late Roman Republic. Despite some victories he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. Marching down the Euphrates, he captured Dura-Europos, the capital Ctesiphon[150] and Seleucia, and even subjugated Characene, where he watched ships depart to India from the Persian Gulf. For the past two hundred years the Middle East continues to be divided between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire, with Asia Minor, Syria and Judaea, and Egypt under the firm rule of Rome, and Mesopotamia and Iran under the Parthians. He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari (identified as the Yuezhi), although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka. However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe. When he returned in the spring of 38BC, he faced Ventidius at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, northeast of Antioch. [93] The Arsacids sided with Pompey in the civil war against Julius Caesar and even sent troops to support the anti-Caesarian forces at the Battle of Philippi in 42BC. A. D. H. Bivar concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to Andragoras, the appointed satrap who rebelled against them. [228] The word "philhellene" was inscribed on Parthian coins until the reign of Artabanus II. Before Arsaces I founded the Arsacid Dynasty, he was chieftain of the Parni, an ancient Central Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae. [167] There is evidence, however, that suggests Vologases VI continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 228AD. It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar[25] and Katouzian[22] affirm that it was his brother Tiridates I of Parthia, who in turn was succeeded by his son Arsaces II of Parthia in 211BC. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) in Ptolemy's Geography. With a city per square city count of 10. Standing 1.9m (6ft), the figure wears a V-shaped jacket, a V-shaped tunic fastened in place with a belt, loose-fitting and many-folded trousers held by garters, and a diadem or band over his coiffed, bobbed hair. Homa Katouzian and Gene Ralph Garthwaite claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis and Maria Brosius state that Andragoras was not overthrown by the Arsacids until 238 BC. Parthia (Empire) - World History Encyclopedia When this siege failed, Tigranes the Younger once again fled, this time to the Roman commander Pompey. [129], After the Iberian king Pharasmanes I had his son Rhadamistus (r.5155AD) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates, Vologases I of Parthia (r. c.5177AD) planned to invade and place his brother, the later Tiridates I of Armenia, on the throne. N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938. This conflict with Ptolemy, the Third Syrian War (246241 BC), also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia. Only two royal women were ever depicted on Parthian coins: queen Musa of Parthia and queen Anzaze of Elymais. The Parthian empire occupied all of modern Iran, Iraq and Armenia, parts of Turkey . Yet Curtis and Brosius state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC, and Brosius in 217 BC. "[204], The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sasanian monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era. One thing for sure, Parthia's attaining and maintenance of its empire was not a meteoric rise. [253] Monumental iwans are also commonly found in the ancient temples of Hatra and perhaps modeled on the Parthian style. the expansion phase, could one speak of a Parthian Empire. Parthian Empire | Encyclopedia.com It is fully attested that royal women, as well as noblewomen, accompanied their husbands in battle with their own entourage. The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. desire to form alliances against the Xiongnu, "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires", "Emperor Trajan, 98117: Greatest Extent of Rome", "Strabo, Geography, Book 11, chapter 9, section 3", ""From Terror to Tactical Usage: Elephants in the Partho-Sasanian Period," The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion, eds. [226], Although Greek culture of the Seleucids was widely adopted by peoples of the Near East during the Hellenistic period, the Parthian era witnessed an Iranian cultural revival in religion, the arts, and even clothing fashions. [117] Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile. [222] Dense population centers in regions like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land. [73][74] It is only with the beginning of the reign of Orodes II in c.57 BC, that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced.

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