Francisco Javier Clavijero was expelled from New Spain during the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767 and wrote an important history of Mexico during his exile in Italy. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning, lifelong spiritual and intellectual growth,[159] and training men and women for others. The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support. A Christian is a person who has faith in Jesus Christ as his or her Lord and Savior ( Romans 10:9-10 ). Two of his former teachers were exiled and a third was hanged. [65] However just a few years later, during the Protectorate era, only 18 of the Jesuits resident in Ireland managed to avoid capture by the authorities. The first Jesuits, guided by Manuel da Nbrega, Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes, and later Jos de Anchieta, established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in So Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, the settlement that gave rise to the city of So Paulo. The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous peoples is linked to their efforts to understand the native cultures, especially their languages. In Scotland, John Ogilvie, a Jesuit, is the nation's only post-Reformation saint. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri established a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (171621) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing a long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Catholic Christianity. The Jesuit missions offered the indigenous people Christianity, iron tools, and a small degree of protection from the slavers and the colonists. Fr Morony then went to live in Dublin and worked as a secular priest. Pope Pius VII had resolved during his captivity in France to restore the Jesuits universally, and on his return to Rome he did so without much delay. He founded numerous missions and served as the peace-bringer between the tribes and the government of New Spain. President Barack Obama appointed him to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom in 2014 and again in 2016.[128]. Over time the restriction relating to Muslim ancestry was dropped. The Plot was the attempted assassination of James VI and I, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack, by exploding the Houses of Parliament. [74] In 1624 the French Recollects realized the magnitude of their task[75] and sent a delegate to France to invite the Society of Jesus to help with this mission. I, P88, Vera Moynes, Irish Jesuit Annual Letters 1604-1674 Vol. (Georgetown University Press, 2016). The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools. [92] In the mid-17th century, bishop of Puebla, Don Juan de Palafox took on the Jesuits over this matter and was so soundly defeated that he was recalled to Spain, where he became the bishop of the minor diocese of Osma. The expedition disembarked from the Napo river 16 February 1639 and arrived in what is today Par Brazil on the banks of the Amazon river on 12 December 1639. [94] An earlier Jesuit who wrote about the history of Mexico was Diego Luis de Motezuma (161999), a descendant of the Aztec monarchs of Tenochtitlan. The spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, ultimately based on the Catholic faith and the gospels, is drawn from the Constitutions, The Letters, and Autobiography, and most specially from Ignatius' Spiritual Exercises, whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment". [90] Mendicant orders that had real estate were less economically integrated, so that some individual houses were wealthy while others struggled economically. His execution was carried out on 25 October 1572 and a report of it was sent by Fitzmaurice to the Jesuit Superior General in 1576, where he said that Daniel was "cruelly killed because of me".[57]. [211] The Jesuits have been described as "the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century". In 1604, the Lord President of Munster, Sir Henry Brouncker - at Limerick, ordered all Jesuits from the city and Province, and offered 7 to anyone willing to betray a Jesuit priest to the authorities, and 5 for a Seminarian. Although most haciendas had a free work force of permanent or seasonal labourers, the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico had a significant number of black slaves.[91]. For philosophy concerning the teachings of Jesus, see, Exclusion of those of Jewish or Muslim ancestry. The Jesuits, nevertheless, have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery. Here are the real stories behind history's most exclusive secret societies. It purports to describe the methods to be adopted by Jesuits for the acquisition of greater power and influence for the society and for the Catholic Church. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General. formulary controversy and Lettres Provinciales, by Blaise Pascal). History of the Catholic Church in Japan - Wikipedia [197] The German Jesuit Robert Leiber acted as intermediary between Pius XII and the German Resistance. The printed version of Signum is published eight times per year.[226]. [170] This new rule was contrary to the original wishes of Ignatius who "said that he would take it as a special grace from our Lord to come from Jewish lineage". [192], The Superior General of Jesuits at the outbreak of war was Wlodzimierz Ledchowski, a Pole. Whether you're religious, nonreligious or searching for a spiritual home, we accompany you on your journey and help you lead a life of deeper meaning, belonging and purpose. [42], Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm." [90] The immense Jesuit hacienda of Santa Luca produced pulque, the fermented juice of the agave cactus whose main consumers were the lower classes and indigenous peoples in Spanish cities. The resentment was recorded by Jesuit Jos de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. One of the original seven arrived in India already in 1541. Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the first English poets to use sprung verse. The Church of the Gesu in Frascati, province of Rome, Italy, The glise du Ges in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, church and cultural venue. Jesuit, member of the Society of Jesus (S.J. The Jesuits' contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. Viceroy of Peru Don Francisco de Toledo urged the Jesuits to evangelize the indigenous peoples of Peru, wanting to put them in charge of parishes, but Acosta adhered to the Jesuit position that they were not subject to the jurisdiction of bishops and to catechize in indigenous parishes would bring them into conflict with the bishops. [101]At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits in the Audiencia of Quito 6 in the Napo and Aguarico Missions and 19 in the Pastaza and Iquitos Missions, with a population at 20,000 inhabitants. Formation for priesthood normally takes between eight and fourteen years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit formation among the longest of any of the religious orders. II, P. 551. By 1700 they were only 6 or 7, recovering to 25 by 1750. During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. [79] It became the Jesuit headquarters and an important part of Canadian history. [53], They recommenced teaching at Castle Lane, and imparting the sacraments, though their activities were restricted by the arrival of Royal Commissioners. [157] According to a 2014 article in The Atlantic, "the number of Jesuit priests who are active in everyday operations at the schools isn't nearly as high as it once was". St. Francis Xavier Church, a Jesuit parish church across the street from the Rockhurst University campus, Kansas City, Missouri, US, St. Francis Xavier College Church in the Saint Louis University campus, St. Louis, Missouri, US. Lenihan records that the Limerick College SJ, in 1656, moved to a hut in the middle of a bog which was difficult for the authorities to find. [107], To the contrary the detractors say that 'the Jesuits took away the Indians' freedom, forced them to radically change their lifestyle, physically abused them, and subjected them to disease." [143], The Father General is assisted by "assistants", four of whom are "assistants for provident care" and serve as general advisors and a sort of inner council, and several other regional assistants, each of whom heads an "assistancy", which is either a geographic area (for instance the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance higher education). A Historiographical Essay.". [98], To minister to newly arrived African slaves, Alonso de Sandoval (15761651) worked at the port of Cartagena de Indias. Amid the hogs and milk cows, candlesticks and chalices were 15. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. [214] The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible".[215]. In 1671, Dr. James Douley was appointed Vicar Apostolic of Limerick and during his visitation to the Diocese reported to the Holy See that the Jesuits had a house and "taught schools with great fruit, instructing the youth in the articles of faith and good morals. [39]. [30] Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. In 1658, the Jesuits were having little success and were under constant threat of being tortured or killed,[82] but continued their effort until 1687 when they abandoned their permanent posts in the Iroquois homeland. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought. [220] Included in this would be research, training, advocacy, and action for human development, as well as direct services. Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given refuge to Jews during that period. And he joins us to talk more about the president's speech and how faith informs Biden's leadership. They attracted the patronage of elite families whose sons they educated in rigorous newly founded Jesuit colegios ("colleges"), including Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, Colegio de San Ildefonso, and the Colegio de San Francisco Javier, Tepozotlan. He has authority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is assisted by a socius who acts as a sort of secretary and chief of staff. Each Jesuit community within a province is normally headed by a rector who is assisted by a "minister", from the Latin word for "servant", a priest who helps oversee the community's day-to-day needs. 1. The society's Constitutions gives the following instructions: "The clothing too should have three characteristics: first, it should be proper; second, conformed to the usage of the country of residence; and third, not contradictory to the poverty we profess." This document contains some scanned copies of Good's original correspondence", "West Coast Jesuits forming new province - gradually", "The Western Margins of Amazonia from the Early Sixteenth to the Early Nineteenth Century", "Silencing Genocide: The Jesuit Ministry in Colonial Cartagena de Indias and its Legacy", "Votation No 236 Tableau rcapitulatif: Arrt fdral abrogeant les articles de la constitution fdrale sur les jsuites et les couvents (art. In Germany, the Jesuits publish Geist und Leben. [37] Whereas the first pressing issue of early Jesuits, in what today is the UK, was to establish places for training priests, the Society's activities today are much broader than that. From Greek it is an abbreviation of the name ( Jesus ). On 16 November 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacura, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martn-Bar, Joaquin Lpez y Lpez, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado Lpez), Elba Ramos their housekeeper, and Celia Marisela Ramos her daughter, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government. [14] Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre (modern Spain), Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Lanez, Nicols Bobadilla from Castile (modern Spain), Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simo Rodrigues from Portugal. It has been suggested that the experience of suppression had served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits. Les moines portugais firent accroire que le peuple adorait le diable, et ce sont eux qui l'ont servi. There were a number of Jesuit colleges founded in the decades following; one of these colleges evolved into present-day Laval University.[88]. In 1641 and 1642, armed by the Jesuits, Guaran armies defeated the Bandeirantes and ended the worst of the slave trade in their region. As elsewhere in the Spanish empire, the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767. It was finally forced to close, not for religious or confessional reasons, but due to the political difficulties of the Jesuit Order elsewhere. [118], In Switzerland, the constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848, following the defeat of the Sonderbund Catholic defence alliance. Ignatius's plan of the order's organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the "Formula of the Institute". Following his resignation, Reese spent a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University before being named a fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center in Washington, D.C., and later Senior Analyst for the National Catholic Reporter. Wright, Jonathan. In the United States, the order is best known for its missions to the Native Americans in the early 17th century, its network of colleges and universities, and (in Europe before 1773) its politically conservative role in the Catholic Counter Reformation. History of the Catholic Church in Japan 10 languages The martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, 1590-1600 tempera painting, Japan. It was not until the early 1600s that the Jesuit mission could again re-establish itself in the city, though the Jesuits kept a low profile existence in lodgings here and there. 29, No. [209] A plaque commemorating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave their lives during the Holocaust was installed in April 2007 at the Jesuits' Rockhurst University in Kansas City, Missouri, United States. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China: [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. [29], After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity. The invitation was accepted, and Jesuits Jean de Brbeuf, Ennemond Masse, and Charles Lalemant arrived in Quebec in 1625. Paul VI's words remain engraved on your hearts: "Wherever in the Church, even in the most difficult and extreme fields, at the crossroads of ideologies, in the social trenches, there has been and there is confrontation between the burning exigencies of man and the perennial message of the Gospel, here also there have been, and there are, Jesuits". [80] However, the Iroquois of New York, rivals of the Hurons, grew jealous of the Hurons' wealth and control of the fur trade system and attacked Huron villages in 1648. The Jesuits were banned from France, although this ban was quickly lifted. Elisabeth University of Music, Hiroshima, Japan. Franciscan missionaries began establishing missions called reductions in the 1580s. [105], The opinions of historians differ with regard to the Jesuit missions. Having depleted native populations near So Paulo, they discovered the richly populated Jesuit missions. The Pope's Marxist Head of the Jesuits by George Neumayr May 19, 2017, 12:00 AM U nderstanding the adage that personnel is policy, Pope Francis has been planting Marxists throughout the Church,. The Origin of the Jesuits. [56] He was removed from Limerick, taken to Cork "just as if he were a thief or noted evildoer". The Bicentennial History of Georgetown University . Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God,[a] to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine". [15] The meeting has been commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre. James McMahon, who was a nephew of the Primate of Armagh, Hugh MacMahon. Those same elite families hoped that a son with a vocation to the priesthood would be accepted as a Jesuit. Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. [196] The Bavarian Jesuit Provincial, Augustin Rosch, ended the war on death row for his role in the July Plot to overthrow Hitler. [112] In total, 78 Jesuits departed from the missions leaving behind 89,000 Guaran in 30 missions. [90] They argued that they were exempt, due to special pontifical privileges. Ignatius of Loyola, a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona. Another famous Jesuit was Jean de Brbeuf, a French missionary who was martyred during the 17th century in what was once New France (now Qubec) in Canada. [163], The Monita Secreta (Secret Instructions of the Jesuits), published in 1612 and in 1614 in Krakw, is alleged to have been written by Claudio Acquaviva, the fifth general of the society, but was probably written by former Jesuit Jerome Zahorowski. [7] The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Ges attached to the Church of the Ges, the Jesuit mother church. In 1615-17 the Royal Visitation Books, written up by Thomas Jones, the Anglican Archbishop of Dublin, records the suppression of Jesuit schools at Waterford, Limerick and Galway. The population of the missions was only sustained by frequent expeditions into the jungle by Jesuits, soldiers, and Christian Indians to capture indigenous people and force them to return or to settle in the missions. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. [200][201], In his history of the heroes of the Holocaust, the Jewish historian Martin Gilbert notes that in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews, and that the Jesuits were one of the Catholic Orders that hid Jewish children in monasteries and schools to protect them from the Nazis. The suppression was carried out on political grounds in all countries except Prussia for a time, and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden its promulgation. [171] The 16th-century Decree de genere was repealed in 1946. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials. The Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century. The founding members of the . In South America, Peter Claver was notable for his mission to African slaves, building on the work of Alonso de Sandoval. Outside conflict forced the Jesuits to leave New France in 1629 when Quebec was surrendered to the English. Jesuit scholar John Padberg states that the restriction on Jewish/Muslim converts was limited only to the degree of parentage. Slave labor and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and the Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African peoples, but rather critiqued the conditions of slavery. The son of former Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, Avery Dulles was long known for his carefully reasoned argumentation and fidelity to the teaching office of the church. Good gives a highly detailed report of the curriculum taught and the top class studied the first and second parts of Johannes Despauterius's Commentarli grammatici, and read a few letters of Cicero or the dialogues of Frusius (Andr des Freux, SJ). How the Jesuits and the Christian Brothers are bringing Catholic The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese settlement on Macau, where they settled on Green Island and founded St. Paul's College. [160], Jesuits do not have an official habit. Sweet. [202][203] Fourteen Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II: Roger Braun (19101981) of France,[204] Pierre Chaillet (19001972) of France,[205] Jean-Baptist De Coster (18961968) of Belgium,[206] Jean Fleury (19051982) of France,[207] Emile Gessler (18911958) of Belgium, Jean-Baptiste Janssens (18891964) of Belgium, Alphonse Lambrette (18841970) of Belgium, Emile Planckaert (19062006) of France, Jacob Raile (18941949) of Hungary, Henri Revol (19041992) of France, Adam Sztark (19071942) of Poland, Henri Van Oostayen (19061945) of Belgium, Ioannes Marangas (19011989) of Greece, and Raffaele de Chantuz Cubbe (19041983) of Italy.[208]. [b], Within the Catholic Church, there has existed a sometimes tense relationship between Jesuits and the Holy See, due to questioning of official church teaching and papal directives, such as those on abortion,[irrelevant citation][174][175] birth control,[176][177][178][179] women deacons,[180] homosexuality, and liberation theology. The Iroquois soon turned on the French again. [12] The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council. [23] Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the pope. [150] The Jesuits have experienced a decline in numbers in recent decades. Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions. A Jesuit is a member of an order of Catholic priests founded in 1534 by St. Ignatius of Loyola, St. Francis Xavier, and others. [155] In September 2019, the superior general of the Jesuits, Arturo Sosa, estimated that by 2034 the number would decrease to about 10,000 Jesuits, with a much younger average age than in 2019, and with a shift away from Europe and into Latin America, Africa, and India. [66], At the Restoration of Charles II the school moved back to Castle Lane, and remained largely undisturbed for the next 40 years, until the surrender of the city to Williamite forces in 1692. [181][182] At the same time, Jesuits have been appointed to prominent doctrinal and theological positions in the church; under Pope Benedict XVI, Archbishop Luis Ladaria Ferrer was Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith[183] who is now, under Pope Francis, the Prefect of this Congregation. Jesuit educational institutions aim to promote the values of Eloquentia Perfecta. The Jesuits also run over 500 notable or stand-alone social or economic development centres in 56 countries around the world. The society is headed by a Superior General with the formal title Praepositus Generalis, Latin for "provost-general", more commonly called Father General. The British barred the immigration of more Jesuits to New France, and by 1763, only 21 Jesuits were stationed in New France. Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuit of Quito to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which belonged to the Audiencia (high court) of Quito that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. This was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence. Jesus and Buddha in China | SAPIENTIA [61] Four years earlier the resident Jesuit had raised a sum of "200 cruzados" for the purpose of founding a hospital in the city, though the project was disrupted by a severe outbreak of plague and repression by the Lord President[62], The principal activities of the Order within the city at this time were devoted to preaching, administration of the sacraments and teaching. Generosity is a critical discipline that trains Jesus followers to steward God's resources better and be more thankful and appreciative of God's blessings. Today, there are four Jesuit provinces operating in the United States: the USA East, USA Central and Southern, USA Midwest, and USA West Provinces. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. This is a Jesuit tradition that focuses on cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good. At Limerick there appears to have been a long hiatus following the defeat of the Jacobite forces and Begley states that Fr. Banchoff, Thomas and Jos Casanova, eds. St. Ignatius was against women Jesuits. Do his arguments still hold up In 1746 Father Joseph Morony was sent from Bordeaux to join Father McMahon and the others. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. The General is also required to have an admonitor, a confidential advisor whose task is to warn the General honestly and confidentially when he might be acting imprudently or contrary to the church's magisterium. The missions are much-romanticized with the Guaran portrayed as innocent children of nature and the Jesuits as their wise and benevolent guides to an earthly utopia. Apostolic Administration of Minsk-Mohilev, This page was last edited on 2 July 2023, at 18:51. During this time in the United States, 22 of the society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits. Tom de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought the first group of Jesuits to the colony. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2010. [44][45][46][47] Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree[48]upheld by the 1715 bull Ex Illa Dieled to the swift collapse of all the missions in China;[45] the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721. What Is a Jesuit School? - Niche Blog 10 Spiritual Disciplines to Strengthen Your Faith | Cru Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits - Wikipedia Nor. Antonio Ruiz de Montoya was an important missionary in the Jesuit reductions of Paraguay. At the end of 1568 the Anglican Bishop of Meath, Hugh Brady, was sent to Limerick charged with a Royal Commission to seek out and expel the Jesuits. On his death in 1820 the Jesuits were expelled from Russia by tsar Alexander I. [158] Worldwide it runs 322 secondary schools and 172 colleges anduniversities. Because of the constant epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744. [93] Exiled Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero wrote an important history of Mexico while in Italy, a basis for creole patriotism. Vera Moynes, Irish Jesuit Annual Letters 1604-1674 Vol. They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon affected the tides, and the wave-like nature of light. The Exercises culminate in a contemplation whereby one develops a facility to "find God in all things". Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. The Jesuits in New Spain distinguished themselves in several ways. The Santa Clara University's Mission Church is at the heart of Santa Clara University's historic campus Santa Clara, California, US. Despite the personal testimony of the Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, Pope Clement XI's papal decree Cum Deus Optimus ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704;[43] his legate Tournon and Bishop Charles Maigrot of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor, displayed such extreme ignorance that the emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism. He is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ's faithful through hearing confessions and administering the other sacraments.

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